European eel

European eel is a critically endangered species. There is no sustainable source of this species, and zero catch is recommended. It therefore receives a critical fail red rating and is a Fish to Avoid.

There is a single European eel stock, for which scientific advice on fishing and management is provided by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). The species is considered to be at critically low levels, with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing European eel as ‘Critically Endangered’ since 2008.

Data on this stock has many uncertainties. Total landings and fishing effort are incomplete, with reporting inconsistent between countries, and illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing known to occur. As a result, total catches remain unknown. Reference points to define a healthy stock size of sustainable fishing level are not available.

European eel is monitored at various life stages. After spawning in the Sargasso Sea, larvae migrate to European rivers and develop into glass eels. They then develop into yellow eels during their freshwater phase, before maturing into silver eels which return to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and die. Recruitment through these stages declined sharply between 1980 and 2011 and has remained low since.

Provisional estimates of recent recruitment show mixed trends. In ‘Elsewhere Europe’, glass eel recruitment rose from 7.2% to 12.1% of the 1960-1979 baseline between 2024 and 2025 – the highest since 2003, but still a very small fraction of historical levels. In contrast, ‘North Sea’ recruitment of glass eels fell from 1.3% to 0.7% of the historical baseline over the same period. For yellow eels, recruitment estimates are provided for only ‘Europe’. In 2024, yellow eel recruitment was estimated as 14.3% of the historical mean – the highest value since 2020, but again a small proportion of historic levels. These figures and trends must be treated cautiously due to the unpredictable nature of recruitment.

European eel is exploited throughout its lifecycle and across Europe, with fishing pressure ranging from minimal to severe overexploitation. ICES has advised a precautionary approach, recommending zero catches in all habitats for 2026. This applies to both recreational and commercial fisheries, including the capture of glass eels for restocking and aquaculture.

The poor status of the species reflects multiple pressures which are encountered throughout the species’ life cycle and migration through diverse habitats. Pressures and threats, other than fishing, include:

• Barriers to migration – including damage by hydropower turbines
• Climate change – including changes in oceanic currents and climate related hydrological changes.
• Disease and parasites
• Legal and illegal exploitation and trade of eels
• Habitat loss and associated resource decline
• Pollutants
• Predation

Management measures for European eel have been ineffective in recovering the stock, with the species still listed as Critically Endangered. Catches are recommended to be zero. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing is known to take place.

The European eel has been listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List since 2008. Despite this, it continues to be fished throughout Europe. The main fisheries target eels during migration, trapping them in estuaries and inshore waters. Traditionally, fisheries for local consumption focused on adult eels, but over the past fifteen years, the fishery for juvenile glass eels has exponentially grown. These juveniles are exported to Asian markets, where they are farmed before sale, driving glass eel prices sharply upward.

To address the decline, the EU established a management framework in 2007. Member States were required to develop Eel Management Plans (EMPs) for their river basin districts, with the aim to reduce anthropogenic drivers of mortality. The regulations main aim is to ensure that at least 40% of silver (mature) eels can escape from rivers to the sea. This is relative to the best estimate of escapement that would have existed if no anthropogenic influences had impacted the stock. However, even after 18 years, this target has not been achieved.

Since 2010, all trade of eel with countries outside of the EU has been banned, following the species being listed in Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Appendix II in 2009. This classification requires strict control of trade to prevent further decline. In addition, the Council introduced temporary fishing closures in 2018, banning eel fishing for several months each year. However, a 2020 European Commission report concludes that the status of European eel remains critical, with the regulation’s main target unmet, and the effectiveness of national measures questionable. The European Parliament has similar concerns, with a 2023 resolution highlighting the need to address non-fisheries factors contributing to mortality.

Stocking eels is considered a management tool under EU regulation, but relies on catches of wild glass eels. Evidence suggests that translocated and stocked eels can contribute to yellow and silver eel production in local waters, but their role in actual spawning remains unknown due to limited knowledge surrounding eel reproduction. Internationally coordinated research is required to determine the net benefits of restocking, including mortality rates, carrying capacity of source estuaries, and performance of stocked versus wild eels. In its 2025 advice, ICES recommended zero catches of European eel in all habitats for 2026, which includes glass eels for restocking and aquaculture.

Beyond fishing, anthropogenic impacts on marine, transitional, and freshwater ecosystems can contribute to stress on eels, their mortality, and their reproductive success. River development, construction, hydropower, pumping stations, and other water intakes can contribute to habitat loss, barriers to migration, water quality deterioration, altered predation levels, and the spread of disease and parasites. Climate change may also impact populations, though its effects remain unquantified. Implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) is expected to improve continental environments, potentially enhancing the reproductive success of silver eels.

Eels are caught using many different fishing methods. As this species is a Fish to Avoid, capture method impacts have not been scored.

Fisheries for the European eel exploit every continental life stage: juvenile glass eel entering inland waters, the immature yellow eel, and the maturing silver eel. Both commercial and recreational fisheries operate across rivers, lakes, and coastal habitats, with registered and unregistered vessels varying by country and region.

Eels are harvested using a wide range of methods, including:

• Electric fishing
• Traps and Pots
• Hooks
• Spears and forks
• Weirs
• Trawls
• Artisanal nets and seines

Yellow eels are typically caught with seines, nets, traps, hook and line, and eel spears. Silver eels, on the other hand, are taken in traps and fixed nets during their seaward migration.

Fishing seasons differ by life stage. Glass eels are targeted from October to May, primarily for stocking aquaculture facilities and intensively fished areas. Yellow eel fisheries generally begin in April, peak in June and July, and taper off until the season closes in October. Silver eel fisheries follow a similar pattern, though catches peak later between August and October.

The extent of bycatch remains uncertain, but will vary depending on the gear type used.